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"The Personalization of Campaigns: Nonverbal Cues in Presidential Debates" published on by Oxford University Press.

This study examines e-mail response latency as an expectancy violation and explores its impact. Managers evaluate job candidates who varied in their response latency to an e-mail (1 day, 2 weeks, and silence for more than a month) and in their reward valence. As predicted by expectancy violations theory, candidate reward valence moderates the effect of response latency on variables such as applicant evaluation, credibility, and attractiveness. A norms-based definition of online silence is presented, and the influential and complex role of response latency and of online silence as nonverbal chronemic cues in written CMC is elaborated.

PurposeFacebook groups provide a forum for members to post content and engage with others through comments. Sometimes members behave poorly and violate the expectations of group members. In this study, the authors build a research framework based on expectancy violation theory (EVT) to predict and better understand the behaviour and responses of members when faced with violations in their groups.Design/methodology/approachFacebook group members completed surveys regarding their interactions in social media groups. The independent variable predictors in the study were categorized by personal characteristics, relationship characteristics and group characteristics. Participants also identified expectancy violations they had encountered (either severe or mild) and identified how they would react to the two types of violations. Regression models were developed for severe and mild violations.FindingsThe regression models show that personal characteristics such as age, gender and marital status; relationship characteristics such as their social media usage frequency and their social media engagement level; group characteristics such as anonymity of users and purpose of the group as well as the perceived severity of the violation influence how a member will respond to the expectancy violation.Originality/valueThe research study extends the existing expectancy violation literature by providing a comprehensive framework to predict how users will react to negative expectancy violations. This study also has practical implications for how group administrators might manage expectancy violations.

What factors prompt citizens to switch from a partisan judgment strategy, one in which they reflexively side with the in-group in policy and electoral contests, to a more thoughtful one, in which they pause to consider additional information? Previous work suggests that variation in political reasoning is triggered by the experience of anxiety. In this research, we examine a broader consideration: whether the overall pattern of experienced emotions confirms or violates one's partisan expectations. Using both cross-sectional and panel data from the American National Election Studies, we examine how the emotions of anxiety, anger, and enthusiasm influence the manner in which voters appraise presidential candidates and update their opinions on salient policy issues. In line with an expectancy violation framework, the results consistently indicate that expectancy-violating emotions (e.g., experiencing enthusiasm toward the other party's candidate) heighten deliberative reasoning and suppress partisan cue-taking, and that expectancy-confirming emotions (e.g., experiencing anxiety toward the other party's candidate) have the reverse set of effects. We discuss the implications of our findings for American politics and for theories of political information processing and judgment.

Phubbing refers to the nonverbal behavior of glancing at, or using, one's mobile phone during a face-to-face (FtF) interaction, whereby the mobile-phone-checking behavior is perceived to breach expectations of attention or etiquette. In general, phubbing can negatively affect interpersonal relationships and well-being. When younger family members' phubbing behavior is perceived by older adult relatives as a violation of their conversational expectations, these older adults may feel ignored and disrespected. This study may be the first to investigate the associations between intergenerational family phubbing expectancy violations and indicators of well-being among older adults. Survey data were derived from a sample of U.S. Internet users aged 65 or above ( n = 679). The results suggested that both perceived frequency of family phubbing and family phubbing expectancy violations were inversely associated with mattering and indicators of well-being. Study limitations and potential directions for future research are discussed.

Affective disposition theory (ADT) explains that the moral judgments of character behavior inform dispositions toward characters. These dispositions bias moral judgments of characters' subsequent behaviors and establish behavioral expectations. We used expectancy violations theory to help specify people's dispositions toward characters. In study 1, we modified the footbridge dilemma to develop experimental stimuli and predictions. Studies 2 and 3 observed the disposition formation process longitudinally and validated our stimulus: a custom-built visual novel. Study 4 tested our predictions. Studies 2 through 4 used pre-registered hypotheses, sampling, and data analyses. Results demonstrated that the current disposition (positive vs. negative) changes how a novel (im)moral behavior affects that disposition. Schema-violating behaviors provoked larger mean differences in participants' dispositions toward protagonists compared to antagonists. Specifically, people were hyper-scrutinous of moral paragons and entrenched despised characters in moral skepticism. Additionally, we observed differences in dispositions toward characters who did not act when they could (inaction).

A local workgroup's initial acceptance of a newcomer from a different culture is determined by the group members' expectations of the newcomer that are influenced by his/her category stereotypes. If the resulting attitude towards the newcomer is not favorable initially, it becomes important to study how it can be changed to ensure that the workgroup functions properly. I draw from expectancy violation theory and argue that a change in group acceptance will occur if a newcomer violates a host group's expectations of him/her. The findings of my study show evidence of changes in a foreign newcomer's task-based and relationship-based group acceptance when the newcomer's performance and cross-cultural adaptability do not confirm the group's expectations. The direction of the change is determined by whether the violation that occurs is favorable or not.

Although users' expectations of a chatbot's performance could greatly shape their interaction experience, they have been underexplored in the context of social support where chatbots are gaining popularity. A 2 × 2 experiment created expectancy violation and confirmation conditions by matching or mismatching a chatbot's expertise label (expert vs. non-expert) and its interactional contingency (contingent vs. generic feedback to users). Contingent feedback from chatbots was found to have positive effects on participants' evaluation of the bot and their perceived emotional validation, regardless of the bot's expertise label. When providing generic feedback to participants, a bot received worse evaluation and induced less emotional validation on participants when it was labeled as an expert, rather than a non-expert, highlighting the detrimental effect of negative expectancy violation than negative expectancy confirmation in interactions with a social support chatbot. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.

Scholars around the world are rapidly uncovering new information about nonverbal communication in human transactions. Authors from eight countries summarize the theory and research associated with various behaviors central to an understanding of nonverbal processes. The breadth and depth of this volume make it an important contribution to the scholarly literature on human behavior as well as to the application of that knowledge to everyday life. Judith A. Hall, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, USA; Mark L. Knapp, University of Texas, Austin, TX, USA.

Scholars around the world are rapidly uncovering new information about nonverbal communication in human transactions. Authors from eight countries summarize the theory and research associated with various behaviors central to an understanding of nonverbal processes. The breadth and depth of this volume make it an important contribution to the scholarly literature on human behavior as well as to the application of that knowledge to everyday life.